Lifespan Development Essay Example for Free

Lifespan Development Essay Lifespan development, also known as human development, is a field of study that is devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout a person’s lifespan (Berk, 2010). Lifespan development begins with infancy and looks at several points in a person’s life in which significant change takes place. The study of children did not begin until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Berk, 2010). Throughout the years, there was much speculation about how people grow and change and when combined with research, theories of development surfaced. These theories were vital and provided organized frameworks for observations of people and they are verified by research and provide a basis for practical action (Berk, 2010). Many theories developed to study the development of infants and children through out life and these theories continue to have an impact on society and research today. There are many notable development researchers and schools of thought such as Locke, Rousseau, Arnold Gesell, Ivan Pavlov, Lawrence Kohlberg, Social Learning Theory, Stages of Moral Development, and Ethiological Theories just to name a few (Crain, 2005). There are some researchers and schools of thought who still have an impact today such as Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution, Jean Piaget and his Cognitive-Developmental theory, and the Psychoanalytic theory first developed by Sigmund Freud. Charles Darwin is significant to developmental studies today because it was he who paved the way, or opened the door for the many schools of thought that followed. Darwin is known as the forefather of scientific child study (Berk, 2010). Darwin was a naturalist who observed the variation among plant and animal species but along with that, he also noticed that within a specific species, no two individuals were alike (Berk, 2010). Darwin developed his theory which emphasized the principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest. Darwin’s theory stated that certain species survive in particular environments because they have characteristics that fit with or are adapted to their surroundings (Berk, 2010). Those within the species that best meet the survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and keep the species going (Berk, 2010). Darwin, in his travels and research, noticed some similarities in prenatal growth among species. Darwin noted that the embryos of most species are highly similar in their early forms revealing their descent from a common ancestor (Crain, 2005). Today, in the broad scheme of things, Darwin’s theory is correct in that there is variation within species and only some survive long enough to reproduce and pass along traits. What Darwin did not understand was the mechanisms underlying the transmission of traits (Crain, 2005). Because of this, Darwin is considered the starting point for the vast amount of research done on lifespan development. Another important aspect of the study of lifespan development is the Cognitive-Developmental theory of Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory stated that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Berk, 2010). Piaget did not believe that a child’s learning depended on reinforcers as the behaviorists believed. Piaget developed stages and he realized that children pass through his stages at different rates and did not pay specific attention to the ages at the various stages but noted that they all pass through the stages in the same order (Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory consisted of four periods: Sensorimotor Intelligence (birth to 2 years), Preoperational Thought (2 to 7), Concrete Operations (7 to 11), and Formal Operations (11 to adulthood) (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget was able to convince people that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge (Berk, 2010). Piaget’s research influenced much of the research today that focuses on children’s concept of self, other people, and human relationships. Many educational philosophies and programs that place emphasis on discovery learning and direct contact were encouraged by Piaget’s theory (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory did not come without criticism and challenges. Some researchers believe that Piaget actually underestimated the competencies of children. This called for much research to be conducted to challenge and refute Piaget’s theory and also to find ways to expound upon and improve his theory. The most influential school of thought is that of the Psychoanalytic perspective developed by Sigmund Freud. This perspective states that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. (Berk, 2010). The school of thought basically focused on the fact that psychological change is governed by inner forces such as feelings, impulses, and fantasies (Crain, 2005). Freud had all of his patients use free association in their sessions allowing them to talk freely about the painful events of their childhood (Berk, 2010). Freud developed the psychosexual theory based on theiry unconscious thoughts. This theory states that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory was considered the first to place importance on the influence of the early parent-child relationship and its involvement in development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory received much criticism because he did not study children directly and was heavy on the sexual influences in development (Crain, 2005). The controversy surrounding this particular school of thought, prompted much research making it one of, if not the influential theories in development. Research on the many aspects of emotional and social development which includes infant-caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity grew from the theory of Freud (Berk, 2010). There are many different ways in which development is researched. One way is systematic observation. There are different ways in which observations of children and adults can be conducted. Some researchers choose to go into the field or the natural environment and record the behavior which is known as naturalistic observation (Berk, 2010). Through naturalistic observation, researchers are able to get a first hand look at the subjects. On the other side though, some people may not display the same behavior in their everyday life. Structured observations happen when the researcher sets up a laboratory situation that evokes behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response (Berk, 2010). The ways that the research is gathered varies depending on what is being researched. Systematic observations tell how people actually behave but fail to provide the reasons behind the behavior. Self-reports allow participants to provide information on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, and other things of that nature. They are normally structured interviews, unstructured interviews, questionnaires, and tests. Clinical interviews allow for researchers to use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view (Berk, 2010). Structured interviews, which includes tests and questionnaires, asks all participants the same set of questions (Berk, 2010). They are easier to score and the researchers are able to identify a behavior of interest because the participants is given alternatives in answer choices. The case study methods brings together a wide range of information on one person, including interviews, observations, and test scores (Berk, 2010). This method is generally used when one wants to study a particular group that may be small in size but varies in characteristics. This method can be viewed as bias because the information that is collected is sometimes done unsystematically and is subjective and geared toward the researchers theoretical perspective. There are other ways of studying development such as ethnography which is aimed at studying a culture as a whole or a distinct social group through participant observation. Ethics plays a major role in the study of development as well. It is important to consider things such as the rights of the participants. This includes, protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of the result, and beneficial treatments (Berk, 2010). Informed consent is especially important because it provides safeguards for children and elderly people who are cognitively impaired or have to be cared for in settings for the chronically ill (Berk, 2010). Research generally creates ethical issues because of the search for scientific knowledge and at the same time has the opportunity to exploit people. References Berk, L.E. (2010). Development through the lifespan. (5th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall

Racism Or Slavery Essay -- essays research papers fc

Racism or Slavery, which came first?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism or slavery, neither, this essay will document the prejudice against Africans from Europeans that led into slavery and racism. Prejudice issues in a dislike for an individual or group of these individuals. This dislike can simulate from many differences that are shared, religion, culture, system of living (government and social practice), or in some cases looks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Initially English contact with Africans did not take place primarily in a context which prejudged the Negro as a slave, at least not as a slave of Englishmen. Rather, Englishmen met Africans merely as another sort of men. Englishmen found the peoples of Africa very different form themselves. â€Å"Negroes† looked different to Englishmen; their religion was un-Christian; they seemed to be very libidinous people (Jordan, 1).† In this example Winthrop Jordan begins to target the differences that Englishmen seen and identified with from themselves and the Africans. Pointing out an area that differed, which to the Englishmen mirrored the souls and morals of the Africans, religion. Prejudice begins with difference. â€Å"For Englishmen, the most arresting characteristic of the newly discovered African was his color. Travelers rarely failed to comment upon it; indeed when describing Africans they frequently began with complexion and then moved on to dress (or, as they saw, lack of it) and manners (Jordan 1).† And entering in a river, we see a number of blacke soules, Whose likelinesse seem’d men to be, but all as blacke as coles. Their Captaine comes to me as naked as my naile, Not having witte or honestie to cover once his taile. Robert Baker Jordan and Baker begin to show the Englishmen dislike for the African choice of dress and complexion. Baker includes that African people skin tone embodies their souls, having negativity in them by nature of being black, adds having neither wit nor honesty. â€Å"Englishmen actually described Negroes as black-an exaggerated term which in itself suggest that the Negro’s complexion had powerful impact upon their perceptions (Jordan, 1).† Black- deeply stained with dirt, soiled, dirty, foul†¦Having dark or deadly purposes, malignant; pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister†¦Foul, iniquitous, atrocious, horrible, wicked†¦ Indicating disgrace, censu... ...As slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as part of its essence, this same discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it.† Degler Prejudice was present, before slavery came about, when Englishmen first encountered Africans, the differences between the two, combined with the English push to turn the world English. â€Å"As England had absorbed people of every nationality over the centuries and turned them into Englishmen, including Negroes, and seemed to be successfully moulding a New World community on the English model (Morgan, 2).† Morgan shows English outlook and attitude towards anyone not English. All non-English people are automatically inferior in some degree. A prejudice existing in a group, before control is gained, and prejudice enforced. Works Cited (1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jordan, Wintrop. â€Å"First Impressions: Libidinous Blacks,† White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812, 1968, University of North Carolina Press. (2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Morgan, Edmund S., â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom,† Journal of American History, 59, 1972, 5-29 Racism Or Slavery Essay -- essays research papers fc Racism or Slavery, which came first?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism or slavery, neither, this essay will document the prejudice against Africans from Europeans that led into slavery and racism. Prejudice issues in a dislike for an individual or group of these individuals. This dislike can simulate from many differences that are shared, religion, culture, system of living (government and social practice), or in some cases looks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Initially English contact with Africans did not take place primarily in a context which prejudged the Negro as a slave, at least not as a slave of Englishmen. Rather, Englishmen met Africans merely as another sort of men. Englishmen found the peoples of Africa very different form themselves. â€Å"Negroes† looked different to Englishmen; their religion was un-Christian; they seemed to be very libidinous people (Jordan, 1).† In this example Winthrop Jordan begins to target the differences that Englishmen seen and identified with from themselves and the Africans. Pointing out an area that differed, which to the Englishmen mirrored the souls and morals of the Africans, religion. Prejudice begins with difference. â€Å"For Englishmen, the most arresting characteristic of the newly discovered African was his color. Travelers rarely failed to comment upon it; indeed when describing Africans they frequently began with complexion and then moved on to dress (or, as they saw, lack of it) and manners (Jordan 1).† And entering in a river, we see a number of blacke soules, Whose likelinesse seem’d men to be, but all as blacke as coles. Their Captaine comes to me as naked as my naile, Not having witte or honestie to cover once his taile. Robert Baker Jordan and Baker begin to show the Englishmen dislike for the African choice of dress and complexion. Baker includes that African people skin tone embodies their souls, having negativity in them by nature of being black, adds having neither wit nor honesty. â€Å"Englishmen actually described Negroes as black-an exaggerated term which in itself suggest that the Negro’s complexion had powerful impact upon their perceptions (Jordan, 1).† Black- deeply stained with dirt, soiled, dirty, foul†¦Having dark or deadly purposes, malignant; pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister†¦Foul, iniquitous, atrocious, horrible, wicked†¦ Indicating disgrace, censu... ...As slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as part of its essence, this same discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it.† Degler Prejudice was present, before slavery came about, when Englishmen first encountered Africans, the differences between the two, combined with the English push to turn the world English. â€Å"As England had absorbed people of every nationality over the centuries and turned them into Englishmen, including Negroes, and seemed to be successfully moulding a New World community on the English model (Morgan, 2).† Morgan shows English outlook and attitude towards anyone not English. All non-English people are automatically inferior in some degree. A prejudice existing in a group, before control is gained, and prejudice enforced. Works Cited (1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jordan, Wintrop. â€Å"First Impressions: Libidinous Blacks,† White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812, 1968, University of North Carolina Press. (2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Morgan, Edmund S., â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom,† Journal of American History, 59, 1972, 5-29

Exam Paper Model Answers S

Q1 what do you learn from Geoffrey Lean's article about the issues of rainfall and flooding in Britain ? From reading the article by Geoofrey Lean it is clear that there are some issues reagarding flooding in Britain. Firstly it is made clear in the heading that the article is about water and the concerns that are related to it . This article is also compering the South and the North of England . It says that the South gets less water and is not affected that much by flooding issues as Northern part does.  «Things are only going to get worse » .This quote makes me scared and worried about what is going on and then the article gives me statistics about the global warming which makes me worried even more! Various government initiatives have also been mentioned by this article . For example that new houses  «should be built with their living areas on the first floor » or  «hospitals and other vital buildings should be built on high ground †¦Ã‚ » . Conversely,there is clea rly a need to look at the ways we can make the flooding less damaging to our houses and how to make South not increasing the prices on the water .As Lean points out at the end local councils finally began to take it seriously and start planning the ways to protect pupils houses . Q2 Explain how the headline ,sub'heading and picture are effective and how they link to the text The headline ,sub-heading and picture are very effective to the rest of the article . The headline begins with  «Four amputations ». This is very strong phrase as this is a real challenge to live happily after that. So the headline immidediately suggests a hard-hearted tone and perhaps one which is slightly inspiring.The notion that this might relate to the swimmer who is illustrated in the picture as we can see a it might be a colourfull picture to show the blue waves and the man who is fighting them. The subheading continues the insiring and hard to believe approach with the phrase  « 16 years after loos ing all his limbs ,Philippe Croizon crosses Channel ». It is expanding the purpose of the text and tells the reader more about this swimmer,things like his name and the certain years make it really effective as well as  «13 hours – one extraodinary swim » .This phrase in the headline makes people interested in this article . The inspirational tone is further developed throughout the article,with phrases such as  «TWO YEARS ago,Phiippe Croizon could barely swim at all » and  «he learnt to swim using a snorkel and prosthetic legs with built-in flippers ». The picture also relates to the text as it clearly shows the big waves and an inspired man that wants to  «prove that I am still alive » .The use of colours helps illustrate his view of the journey as a 13 hour way in the  « handicap and the treacherous Channel tides and currents †¦Ã‚ ». Q3 Explain some of the thoughts and feelings Christopher Ondaatjue has about his experience of Lake Victoria. Christ opher Ondaatjue has a whirlwind of thoughts and feelings during his cross of the Lake Victoria on his way to Nile. He reiterates how enjoyable the landscape was by saying  «beutiful expanse of water ». He focused on the calmness and the nature of this place and expressing his feelings as wonderful.He writes the things that were going on at that time like  «glimmers of golden light » or  «red ball rose over the hills behind Mwanza » to show how enjoyable the situation is and gives us a sense of his pleasure to be there . He is describing the atmospehere of nature as it should be without any technological interventions. As he comes to the ferry which should transport him to the over coast of the Lake ,he started to describe his thoughts about it and using very descriptive and simple language. He coudn't feel that silence anymore as  «the eople pressed up against the frond of the ferry ,along the sides and against the rails ». It was maybe a bit of a panic for some of t hem and Christopher also uses the exposion how hot it was and it was getting even hotter. That helps me to realise that he was hot and the people who were standing aroung him made the atmosphere even more noisy and hotter. The extract finishes by the much the same way as it starts: he took the ferry to travel to this Lake and then something makes me think that he will do it again to move further to Nile. This cyclical pattern of writing mirrors the cyclical nature of storm .

Suggestive Solutions Guide to Past Exam Papers - 5119 Words

Suggestive Solutions Guide to Past Exam Papers Dr. M. H. Nabin 1 Important Message I have put some suggestive solutions or at least some hints for the past exam papers starting from year 2004. In so doing, I emphasize T 1, T 2 and T 3 of 2010, T 1 and T 2 year 2009, S1 and S2 of year 2008, S1 and S2 of year 2007, S1 and S2 of year 2006 — these past exam papers are more relevant to our current courses as we have used the same textbook, course outline and study guide. Please ignore the multiplier questions as those questions are not relevant for our ï ¬ nal exam. I also encourage my students to go through all those elive sessions (recorded by myself). These elive sessions will refresh your memory as well as help you to understand the†¦show more content†¦It is okay to also say that freedom of entry and exit and close substitutes allow firms to quickly respond to changes in market conditions. 3. Consider the production schedules for two fictional countries, Ying and Tai. Both countries can only produce two types of goods, Lychees and Teacups. The rows a to e depict the possible combinations of these two goods that each country can produce. Ying Number of Number of Lychees Teacups 0 12 2 Tai Number Lychees 4 a of Number Teacups 0 of MPE781 Economics for Managers, Exam, T3: 2010 b c d e 3 6 9 12 9 6 3 0 3 2 1 0 2 4 6 8 Imagine initially that the two countries are not trading and that they are each producing at point ‘c’ and keeping all their produce for themselves. Do you think the two nations can benefit from specialization and trade? Explain your answer using the concept of comparative advantage and opportunity costs. First, identify the opportunity cost for each country in each good, and then say which country has a comparative advantage in which good. Note if both countries fully specialize at point e there will be less teacups in the market than prior to trade. Note that Ying at point d and Tai at point e in fact guarantees a gain from trade. Drawing and recognizing the PPF correctly also counts. 4. Using the appropriate diagrams, detail the impact on theShow MoreRelatedMost Basic and Frequently Asked Interview Questions and Answers10148 Words   |  41 Pagessometimes it gave sour result, then I pray god to excuse me. Or Strengths – Ability to prioritize, planning skills, well organized, multitasking assuming responsibilities and duties. Possessing the capacity to cope with failures and trying to learn from past mistakes. my hard working nature Self Motivated and Determined Success Oriented and Natural Leader Team Player. Intelligence and Self Confidence My knowledge My exposure to new technologies My dedication to achieve goals in time. I AM PUNCTUAL WeaknessRead MoreOrganizational Culture by Charles Handy29094 Words   |  117 Pages(Total: 80%) i. Mid – Term Exam (Chapter 1 – 4) †¢ Paper 1 – Theory (15%) †¢ Paper 2 – Application (25%) ii. Final Exam (Chapter 5 – 10) †¢ Paper 1 – Theory (20%) †¢ Paper 2 – Application (30%) 1. 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Analysis Of Robert Frost s Poem And The Thawing Wind

In Robert Frost’s poem â€Å"To the Thawing Wind,† in the literal sense, he is asking the Southwest wind to come, melt the snow and bring spring, but symbolically he is tired of the winter and wants warm weather. He wants to burst out of his cabin and have a good time, not thinking about poetry. The poet has been confined in his winter cabin and is wanting the wind and rain to melt the snow, so it will change his winter isolation. He has been longing for the â€Å"thawing wind† because that is when spring is coming. He is anticipating spring to come because it will bring him inspiration and the freedom needed to be able to do new things and enjoy everything good that comes with this season. In the literal sense, Frost speaks to the seasons and describes his distaste for the weather; however, figuratively he desires to go outside to be a part of the process of spring and feel alive again. In the first line of Frost’s poem, he is ordering the wind to  "Come with rain, O loud Southwester!† Speaking literally, he is telling the southwest wind to come with rain so it can melt the snow and bring spring. His use of the word â€Å"loud† means he is asking for the wind to come and wake up his household. Figuratively, he is wanting spring to come because it will give him the chance to be outside and enjoy nature. In the next line, he mentions birds when he asks for the wind to â€Å"Bring the singer, bring the nester.† During spring, birds come and make their nests and sing because of the warmerShow MoreRelatedRobert Frost : A New England Poet3698 Words   |  15 PagesRobert Lee Frost Known for being a New England poet Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California on March 26th, 1874. Born to a New England father William Prescott Frost Jr. and a Scottish mother Isabelle Moodie who moved to the west coast from Pennsylvania after marriage (Bailey). Both his parents were teachers and poets themselves, but his father later became a journalist with the San Francisco Evening Bulletin (Bailey). Frost spent 12 years of his life growing up in San Francisco, until

Project Management Management And Organizational Issues

Projects doesn’t work in isolation, rather they operate in an organization environment, therefore, project managers need to take a system or holistic approach in order to solve complex problems when they are working on projects integrating business and organizational issues into their planning (Schwalbe, 2014). The systems approach has been defined as a process of problem solving mainly forcing reviews on the relations of the various subsystems, understanding this dynamic approach that integrates all activities into a meaningful system seeking an optimal solution or strategy in solving problem (Kerzner, 2009). In project management this approach is worthiness, it enables project managers to make decision that address the needs of the entire organization, not thinking in isolation, but, understanding how projects relate to the whole organization. Today, companies are surviving mainly because base their operations on projects, success companies and projects use a system approach to understand and identify technological, business and organizational issues related to each project in order to satisfy stakeholders and do what is better for the entire company (Wysocki, 2014) Herzberg conducted investigations in factors that cause job satisfaction as motivators and factors that could cause dissatisfaction as hygiene factors (Marchewka, 2005). 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Farewell My Concubine Self-Identification in Context Free Essays

Directed by Chen Kaige, a highly acclaimed fifth-generation Chinese film director, Farewell My Concubine has received many international film awards and nominations; among them are the Best Foreign Film and the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1993. In the film, Cheng Dieyi, a Peking Opera actor playing the leading female characters, becomes obsessed with his role as the concubine of the King of Chu and blurs his stage role with the real life he leads. The circumstances in which one grows up in are critical factors in shaping his or her sense of self-identity. We will write a custom essay sample on Farewell My Concubine: Self-Identification in Context or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper attempts to explore the gender identity troubles that Cheng Dieyi has undergone in his self-identification and sexuality in the context of the environment of his upbringing. The story begins when Cheng’s mother takes her son to Master Guan and begs him to take Dieyi (whose nickname was Douzi at the time) into his opera troupe. In order to be a performer in the Peking opera, one must not have any features that are abnormal or that may frighten the audience. Unfortunately, Douzi fails this test because he was born with a sixth finger on one of his hands.His mother was desperate to sell him off and thus cuts off her son’s finger with a cleaver. At this point, Master Guan agrees to accept Douzi as a disciple in his opera troupe. Master Guan notices that Douzi’s â€Å"features were surprisingly delicate; he was almost pretty† , which are perfect for playing female roles. Thus, Douzi is chosen as a dan , or the female lead of the opera troupe. He will play the female roles alongside his best friend, Xiaolou who was chosen to be his sheng, or male lead. Starting from even the earliest scenes of the film, Dieyi’s self-identity has been slowly ripped away from him.Dieyi’s abrupt transition from living in a brothel as a prostitute’s son to becoming a well-disciplined opera singer in the troupe is marked by his mother’s brutal amputation of his sixth finger. This symbolic castration implies that one must abandon his inherited past in order to seek a new social identity. â€Å"The root of biological determinism has been severed and the subject freed to pursue a place in a symbolic world of gender fluidity† Dieyi’s finger is not the only thing that has been emasculated, but his self-identity has been castrated as well. The film hints at this in the beginning by including the character of Master Ni, a unuch who was p hysically castrated, losing his male reproductive organs. While Master Ni was physically castrated of his male reproductive organs, Dieyi becomes mentally and emotionally castrated through his harsh upbringing in the opera troupe. Whereas the symbolic castration signifies the possibility of Dieyi’s transition from a biological male to a stereotypical female, the harsh corporal punishment he receives during his training in the opera troupe enforces that transition. Corporal punishment is often used in schools to reinforce the relation between master and student.It instills in students a sense of the power of the social hierarchy and their place within it. Dieyi’s designated â€Å"place† on that hierarchy, sadly, requires that he learns to abandon his male identity. While corporal punishment remakes Dieyi mentally, costume and make up remakes Dieyi physically. As he performs in the long dresses and fancy headdresses, he sees himself capable of reflecting signs of beauty and femininity. He is forced to sing â€Å"I am by nature a girl, not a boy† , and his full transition to femininity went into full motion the moment he mastered this line and accepted it as the truth, that he is by nature a girl, not a boy.Like most of the male dans in the Peking Opera theatre, Cheng Dieyi must be able to create the illusion of a real female that appeals to the male audience, but Cheng’s femininity is apparent not only on stage, but off stage as well. Clearly, Cheng has fully adapted his female roles into his life off stage. He speaks in a low soft voice, his movements are graceful, maintains the delicate hand pose of the Lan huazhi (the artificial feminine hand pose of the male dan), and wears a seductive look that would often be considered a feminine gaze.Most male dans merely imitate these feminine acts on stage, but Cheng Dieyi gradually transforms these â€Å"acts† into an unconscious habit of his. â€Å"The repetition of the stylized female acts embedde d in female impersonation and the rigid and violent regulation of these acts eventually bring about Cheng Dieyi’s unconscious identification with Yuji, concubine of the Chu King, constructing in him a feminine sexuality and identity. † Opera performers at the time were expected to play their stage roles for ife. Dieyi’s most notable performance is an epic opera named Farewell My Concubine; it tells the story of the King of Chu (Xiang Yu) and his faithful concubine Yuji. Xiang Yu knows that he has lost to his enemy and drinks with Yuji on the last night. Yuji performs a sword dance for him and then cuts her own throat with his sword to express her faithfulness to him. As Dieyi continues to play the role of Yuji into this professional career, he begins to blur the life of Yuji’s character and his own.This becomes very obvious when Dieyi begins to show signs of affection towards his stage partner, Xiaolou, who plays the King of Chu. In multiple times throughout the movie, Dieyi can be seen looking at Xiaolou with a tender, almost romantic gaze and is especially gentle when he helps Xiaolou apply makeup and dress in costume. His romantic feelings for his â€Å"stage brother† are translucent to the audience as he is overcome by jealousy at the news that Xiaolou was getting m arried to Juxian. He believes that Juxian is robbing him of what was rightfully his.As in the opera when Yu Ji and Xiang Yu swear their love to each other, what Dieyi sees is actually he and his stage brother declaring their loyalty to one another. While Cheng Dieyi wholly embodies the female roles he impersonates, the Peking opera stage is essentially the world in which he bases his identity on. As he enters his professional career and makes a name for himself, he thinks that he will always be able to hide behind his feminine charms, and that art will always transcend any situation.For a while, he is proven right. On one occasion, he sings for a Japanese official to help Xiaolou out of jail; in another, he sings for a Chinese official to bail himself out of jail. Duan Xiaolou reminds Dieyi again and again that life is not the stage and he must learn to adjust to the values of the changing times. The film covers a story that spans across 50 years of Chinese history: the rise and fall of the Nationalist Party, the Sino-Japanese War, the rise of the Communist Party, and the Cultural Revolution.As the nation goes through a turbulent historical period, Cheng simply views it as a backdrop that would never affect his performances. He was never concerned about any of the political upheavals that occurred or the change in regimes. He felt that as long as his art is being appreciated, it does not matter who the political leaders are. When he was put on trial for being a traitor when the Communist Party was in power, he exclaims, â€Å"If the Japanese were still here, Peking Opera would have spread into Japan already,† with no regard to the consequences.The art of Peking opera has always been Cheng’s way of escaping reality, and it is this illusion that he identifies with. However, when the Cultural Revolution started in 1966, the identity he has found for himself has be en robbed from him once again. The Cultural Revolution is one that advocates extreme reality, and thus traditional art becomes a target of exploitation for distracting people from reality. When Dieyi and Xiaolou are taken out onto the streets to be reprimanded, his previous illusion that he and Xiaolou would never betray one another, just as Yu Ji and Xiang Yu would never do so, is shattered.Under the humiliation and physical abuse of the Red Guards, Xiaolou calls Dieyi a traitor to the Chinese and a homosexual. Cheng and Duan then turn on each other and expose incriminating details about each other’s past to the Red Guards. This political movement is in a sense, a rude awakening for Cheng. For the first time, it forces him to abandon the identity that he forged for himself on the opera stage, and accept that he lives in a world where loyalty is not always indestructible. It is because of this revolution that causes Dieyi’s blurred lines between opera and reality to slowly reappear. These lines, however, did not have a lasting effect. When Cheng Dieyi and Duan Xiaolou reunite on the stage many years after the Cultural Revolution, they make their final Farewell My Concubine performance. At the last scene, Dieyi, playing Yuji, takes the sword and slits his throat. Dieyi wanted so desperately to be Yuji his entire life, and he finally fulfilled that wish, or so he thinks, by boldly committing suicide just as Yuji has done so: for his love, and in a dramatic manner, like a stage opera should be.Cheng Dieyi had grown up with violence and abuse, in a society with constant political turmoil and turbulent changes. As a boy who was already an introvert to begin with, the unsettling changes that revolved around him became too overwhelming. He had no choice but to retreat into a world that he knows best: the opera stage. Though the opera stage is but a fictional world, it is the only place in which he is always the hero(ine).Works Cited Cui, Shuqin. â€Å"Engendering Identity: Female Impersonation in Farewell My Concubine . From Poetic Realm to Fictional World: Chinese Theory of Fictional Ontology (1999) Farewell My Concubine. Dir. Chen Kaige. 1993. DVD. Miramax Films, 1999. Goldstein, Joshua (1999). â€Å"Mei Lanfang and the Nationalization of Peking Opera, 1912–1930† East Asian Cultures Critique 7 (2): 377–420. He, Chengzhou. â€Å"Gaze, Performativity and Gender Trouble in Farewell My Concubine. † Nanjing University (2004): n. pag. Web. Poquette, Ryan D. , Critical Essay on Farewell My Concubine, in Novels for Students, Gale, 2004. How to cite Farewell My Concubine: Self-Identification in Context, Papers